Fundamentals of Carrier Tactics Part 1: Torpedo Bombers

If we were forced to fight a World War II carrier battle again, what key concepts, tactics, techniques, procedures, and technologies would give us a marked advantage over the adversary? As already stated in the introduction, seeking an answer to such questions goes beyond historical curiosity. Because all forms of warfare and combat revolve around similar themes and concepts, lessons from World War II carrier battles that relate to planning, timing, reconnaissance, command, and control could prove useful across multiple domains and eras of conflict. Thus, a detailed examination of World War II carrier combat should prove useful and interesting to historians and military professionals alike, regardless of their specific area of focus or occupational specialty.

However, before we can hope to gain a deeper understanding of the key ingredients of victory in carrier combat, we must first have a basic grasp of the fundamentals of carrier tactics. This introduction is intended to be very basic and, in some cases, must attempt to simplify concepts that are in reality far from simple. We therefore ask readers who are already very familiar with carrier combat to bear with us and forgive us for such simplifications and generalizations. In order to frame the study and get all readers and participants on the same page we must begin with broader brush strokes. At the same time, we expect that even experts in carrier tactics might find this introductory section interesting since even though we will be sticking to the basics, we will still attempt to highlight key tactical concepts and gain insight into their deeper significance.

Naval Combined Arms: Diver Bombers, Torpedo Bombers, and Fighters

As this article will show, the nature of carrier tactics involves unifying and synchronizing the efforts of various types of combat aircraft so that their combined lethality is greater than it would be if each type of aircraft were used in isolation. This is an approximate definition of “combined arms,” a term more commonly used to describe the integration of infantry, armor, artillery, and air support in land operations. However, even though many carrier attacks involve only aircraft that does not mean that the essential principle of combined arms does not apply. Just as tanks are more effective when employed in concert with infantry and artillery, dive bombers are more effective when employed in concert with torpedo bombers and fighters.

Before explaining how dive bombers, torpedo bombers and fighters work in coordination, it is best to first examine each type of aircraft and their respective tactics and attack profiles. As we will see, two key concepts apply to both the tactics of individual aircraft types and the integration of all three types. These concepts are simultaneity and survivability. To explain these concepts, we will begin by examining a common torpedo bombing technique: the anvil attack.

Torpedo Bomber Tactics: Simultaneity, Survivability, and the Anvil Attack

A torpedo bomber attacks a ship by flying towards the target and then dropping a torpedo into the water. Once hitting the water, the torpedo will activate and begin to run in roughly the same direction it was pointing when it was dropped. Ideally, the torpedo will continue to run until it collides with the target ship, striking the hull below the waterline. The damage caused by a torpedo is often more catastrophic than a bomb strike since the water surrounding the ships hull can compound the effects of the explosion and worsen the effects of damage, flooding the ship more quickly.

However, in order for the torpedo to run in the correct direction without malfunctioning, the torpedo bomber would have to fly quite low and slow on approach to the target. The precise altitude and speed would vary depending on the type of torpedo used but the general concept remained the same. In addition, to maximize the chance of a hit on a moving ship, the torpedo bomber would also have to release the torpedo fairly close to the target. Remember that during World War II, torpedoes did not benefit from the sophisticated, sonar guidance systems available today.

NOTE: Image not to scale and simplified for demonstration purposes

Thus, the torpedo bomber attack profile involved lining up with the target ship and flying low and slow, exposed to enemy fire for some distance until close enough to release the torpedo. This presented two main problems, the farther away the bombers dropped the torpedoes the more time the enemy ship would have to evade. The closer the bombers dropped the torpedoes the longer they would have to expose themselves to concentrated enemy fire. A common-sense tactical approach called the anvil attack mitigated these risks while maximizing the effects of a torpedo bomber attack.

While it was possible for an entire formation of torpedo bombers to attack from a single direction, this approach made the two concerns mentioned above even more problematic. Attacking from a single angle made it easier for the target ship to evade and also meant that the attacking formation would be exposed to the maximum concentration of enemy guns and fighter aircraft. In many cases the most reliable way of evading a torpedo was to turn into the torpedo, presenting a smaller target. Torpedo bomber pilots would aim to attack the side of a ship since the full length of a ship presents a much larger target that is easier to hit. “Threading” torpedoes to hit a ship head on or from the stern is much more difficult since the target is smaller. By turning into a torpedo or away from a torpedo, the captain of the target ship could greatly reduce the chances that the torpedo would hit by presenting a smaller target.

The anvil attack calls for the bombers to split up and attack from two different angles (roughly 90-degrees apart). This approach put the target ship’s captain on the horns of a dilemma.  By turning to evade one group of torpedoes the captain would be exposing the side of his ship to the other group. Thus, either way he turned, he would be increasing his exposure and there was no clear option for evasive action. The effectiveness of the anvil attack hinged on the concept of simultaneity. Obviously, if the two attacks came one after the other the combined effects of both formations just described would be negated. The enemy ship could deal with one formation, then maneuver to deal with the next. In conjunction with this simultaneity, the splitting of the torpedo bomber force into two elements increased the survivability of each individual aircraft by forcing the enemy gunners and fighters to disperse their effort, reducing the overall concentration on any one aircraft. Infantrymen spread out on the battlefield to make their formations less vulnerable targets. By splitting into multiple elements, torpedo bombers increase their survivability in a similar way.

NOTE: Image not to scale and simplified for demonstration purposes

This focus on survivability is particularly important in the context of naval combat and carrier combat in particular. While infantrymen and tanks still use dispersion and attack from multiple angles to increase survivability, land forces also generally have the ability to reduce vulnerability by taking advantage of cover and concealment provided by the terrain. Torpedo bombers attacking a carrier have nothing to hide behind and are exposed to the full brunt of enemy guns. Thus, the only way they can protect themselves and increase survivability is by forcing the enemy to disperse his fire among multiple targets.

These core concepts of simultaneity and survivability will emerge again in the next article where we will examine the fundamentals of dive bomber tactics. In addition, for those not already familiar with carrier tactics the bigger tactical picture will begin to emerge. Those familiar with carrier battles like Coral Sea, Midway, the Eastern Solomons, Santa Cruz and the Philippine Sea are likely already holding back comments or asking questions. After covering the fundamentals of dive bomber employment and fighter employment, we can then proceed to examining such cases to see how theory actually translated into practice in the heat of battle.

We hope you enjoyed this short article on Torpedo Bomber Tactics. This article is drawn from our online course on Pacific War Carrier Tactics. For full access to this course and all other current and future WMI courses, join us and become a WMI Member. Click the button below to learn more or if you have any questions about membership, email us at info@warfaremastery.com.